Definition of Victorian

Definition of Victorian The adjective Victorian is used to described something from the period of the reign of Britain’s Queen Victoria. And, as Victoria was on the throne for more than 60 years, from 1837 to 1901, the term is also used to describe things from the 19th century in general. The word is used to describe a wide variety of items, such as Victorian authors or Victorian architecture or even Victorian clothing and fashion. But in its most common usage the word is used to describe social attitudes, implying an emphasis on moral rigidity, priggishness, and prudery. Queen Victoria herself was often perceived as being overly serious and possessing little or no sense of humor. This was due in part to her having been widowed at a relatively young age. The loss of her husband, Prince Albert, was devastating, and for the rest of her life she wore black mourning clothes. Surprising Victorian Attitudes The concept of the Victorian era as repressive is true to some extent, of course. Society at the time was much more formal. But many advances were made during Victorian times, especially in the fields of industry and technology. And a number of societal reforms also took place. One sign of great technological progress would be the enormous technology show held in London, the Great Exhibition of 1851. Queen Victorias husband, Prince Albert, organized it, and Queen Victoria herself visited the displays of new inventions in the Crystal Palace on numerous occasions. And social reformers were also a factor in Victorian life. Florence Nightingale became a British hero by introducing her reforms to the nursing profession. And the novelist Charles Dickens created plots highlighting problems in British society. Dickens had gotten disgusted with the plight of the working poor in Britain during the period of industrialization. And his classic holiday tale, A Christmas Carol, was written specifically as a protest against the treatment of workers by an increasingly greedy upper class. A Victorian Empire The Victorian Era was a peak time for the British Empire, and the concept of Victorians being repressive is more true in dealings internationally. For instance, a bloody uprising by native troops in India, the Sepoy Mutiny, was brutally put down. And in Britains closest colony in the 19th century, Ireland, periodic rebellions were put down. The British also fought in many other places, including two wars in Afghanistan. Despite troubles in many places, the British Empire held together during Victorias reign. And when she celebrated her 60th anniversary on the throne in 1897, troops from across the empire paraded during the massive celebrations in London. The Meaning of Victorian Perhaps the most precise definition of the word Victorian would restrict it purely to the years of the late 1830s to the beginning of the 20th century. But, as it was a period of so much happening, the word has taken on many connotations, which vary from the notion of repression in society to great progress in technology. And as the Victorian Era was profoundly interesting, perhaps that is inevitable.

Siege of Fort Ticonderoga in the American Revolution

Siege of Fort Ticonderoga in the American Revolution Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - Conflict Dates: The Siege of Fort Ticonderoga was fought July 2-6, 1777, during the American Revolution (1775-1783). Armies Commanders: Americans Major General Arthur St. Clairapprox. 3,000 men British Major General John Burgoyneapprox. 7,800 men Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - Background: In the spring of 1777, Major General John Burgoyne devised  a plan for achieving victory over  the Americans. Concluding  that New England was the seat of the rebellion, he suggested separating  the region from the other colonies by advancing down the Hudson River corridor while a second column, led by Colonel Barry St. Leger, moved east from Lake Ontario. Rendezvousing at Albany, the combined force  would drive down the Hudson, while  General William Howes army marched north from New York. Though the plan was approved by London, Howes role was never clearly defined and his seniority prevented Burgoyne from issuing him orders. Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - British Preparations: Prior to this, British forces under Sir Guy Carleton had attempted to capture Fort Ticonderoga.   Sailing south   on Lake Champlain in the fall of 1776, Carletons fleet was delayed by an American squadron led by Brigadier General Benedict Arnold at the Battle of Valcour Island.   Though Arnold was defeated, the lateness of the season prevented the British from exploiting their victory.   Arriving in Quebec the following spring, Burgoyne began assembling his army and making preparations for moving south.   Building a  force of around 7,000 regulars and 800 Native  Americans, he gave  command of his advance force to Brigadier General Simon Fraser while leadership of the right and left wings of the army went to Major General William  Phillips and Baron Riedesel.   After reviewing his command at Fort Saint-Jean in  mid-June, Burgoyne took to the lake to begin his campaign.   Occupying Crown Point on June  30, his army was effectively screened by Frasers men and the Native Americans. Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) -American Response: Following their capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775, American forces had spent two years improving its defenses.   These included extensive  earthworks across the lake on the Mount Independence peninsula as well as redoubts and  forts on the site of the old French defenses to the  west.   Additionally,  American  forces built a fort atop nearby Mount Hope.   To the southwest, the height of Sugar Loaf (Mount Defiance), which dominated both Fort Ticonderoga and Mount  Independence, was left undefended as it was not believed that artillery could be pulled to the summit.   This point had been challenged by Arnold and Brigadier General Anthony Wayne during earlier stints in the area, but no action was taken.   Through the early part of 1777, American  leadership in the region  had been in flux as Major Generals Philip Schuyler and Horatio Gates  lobbied for command of the Northern Department.   As this debate continued, oversight  at Fort Ticonderoga fell to Major General Arthur St. Clair.   A veteran of the failed invasion of Canada as well as the victories at Trenton and Princeton, St. Clair possessed around 2,500-3,000 men.   Meeting with Schuyler on June 20, the two men concluded that this force was not sufficient to hold  the Ticonderoga defenses against a determined British attack.   As such, they devised two lines of retreat with one  passing south through Skenesboro and the other heading east toward Hubbardton.  Ã‚   Departing, Schuyler told his subordinate to defend the post for as long as possible before retreating.  Ã‚     Ã‚   Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - Burgoyne Arrives: Moving south on July 2, Burgoyne advanced Fraser and Phillips down the west shore of the lake while Riedesels  Hessians pressed along the east bank with the goal of attacking Mount Independence and cutting the road to Hubbardton.   Sensing danger, St. Clair  withdrew the garrison from  Mount Hope later that morning due to concerns that it  would be isolated and overwhelmed.   Later in the day, British and Native American forces began skirmishing with the Americans in the old  French lines.   In the course of the fighting, a British soldier was captured and St. Clair was  able to learn more about the size of Burgoynes army.   Recognizing the importance of Sugar Loaf,  British engineers ascended the  heights and covertly began clearing space for an artillery emplacement (Map). Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - A Difficult Choice: The next morning, Frasers men occupied  Mount Hope while other British forces began dragging guns up Sugar Loaf.  Ã‚  Continuing to work in secret, Burgoyne  hoped to have Riedesel in place on the  Hubbardton Road before the Americans discovered the guns on the heights.   On the evening of July 4, Native American campfires on Sugar Loaf alerted St. Clair to the impending  danger.   With the American defenses exposed to the British guns, he called  a council of war  early on July 5.   Meeting with his commanders, St. Clair made the decision to  abandon the fort and retreat after dark.   As Fort Ticonderoga was a politically important post, he recognized that the withdrawal would badly  damage his reputation but he felt that saving his army  took precedence.   Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - St. ClairRetreats: Gathering a fleet of over 200 boats, St. Clair directed that as many supplies as possible be embarked and sent south to Skenesboro.  Ã‚  While the boats  were escorted south by Colonel Pierse Longs New Hampshire Regiment, St. Clair and the remaining men crossed to Mount Independence before marching down the Hubbardton Road.   Probing the American lines the next morning, Burgoynes troops found them deserted.   Pushing forward, they occupied Fort Ticonderoga and the surrounding works without firing a shot.   Shortly thereafter, Fraser received permission to mount a pursuit of the retreating Americans with Riedesel in support. Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) - Aftermath: In the Siege of Fort Ticonderoga, St. Clair suffered seven killed and eleven wounded while Burgoyne incurred five killed.   Frasers pursuit resulted in the Battle of Hubbardton on July 7.   Though a British victory, it saw the American rearguard inflict higher casualties as well as accomplish  their mission of covering St. Clairs retreat.   Turning  west, St. Clairs men later rendezvoused with Schuyler at Fort Edward.   As  he predicted,  St. Clairs abandonment of Fort Ticonderoga led to his removal  from  command and contributed to Schuyler being replaced by Gates.  Ã‚  Firmly arguing that his actions had been honorable and were justified, he demanded a court of inquiry which was held in September 1778.   Though exonerated, St. Clair did not receive another field command during the war.   Advancing south after his success at Fort Ticonderoga, Burgoyne was hampered by  difficult  terrain and American efforts to slow his march.   As the campaign season wore on, his plans began  to unravel following a defeat at Bennington and St. Legers failure at the Siege of Fort  Stanwix.   Increasingly  isolated, Burgoyne was forced to surrender his army after being beaten at the Battle of Saratoga that fall.   The American victory proved a turning point in the war and led to the Treaty of Alliance with France. Selected Sources: British Battles: Siege of Fort TiconderogaFort TiconderogaHistory Central: Battle of Fort Ticonderoga